1. If you have mobility or motor impairments, repetitive stress injuries, or you find typing on a keyboard difficult in any way, there's an alternative. Dictation lets you talk instead of type, and voice-to-text transcribes what you say into words on the screen. It's among the Mac.
2. Copying files. When you use options with commands, this additional letter—always preceded by a hyphen (-)—tells the command to do something a bit differently. The recursive option tells the cp command to copy every item in the folder: every sub-folder, every file and folder in every sub-folder, and so one, all the way down, to the new location.
3. Fortunately, most commands have a manual. To read, use the man command. Pass the name of the command you want to learn about as it’s only argument. For instance to learn more about ls, run. I used the command line on my former Pro Mac, but forgot many features.

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If you have mobility or motor impairments, repetitive stress injuries, or you find typing on a keyboard difficult in any way, there's an alternative. Dictation lets you talk instead of type, and voice-to-text transcribes what you say into words on the screen. It's among the Mac's many accessibility features. All you have to do is set it up and get going.

How to enable and use Dictation

Basic dictation is essentially always enabled by default — you just need to activate it.

Paging man pages. Try it on your Mac: Open Terminal, type man ls, then press Return. The ls command’s man page is quite long, and you’ll need to press the spacebar several times to get to the bottom. Sometimes, when you’re viewing a man page, you need to go back up and look at something that’s no longer visible.

1. Click into a text area like a document or the address bar of your web browser.
2. Double-press the Fn key. A microphone will appear on your screen and if it's receiving audio, you'll see activity inside of it.

3. Speak the text you want to type. You can speak various punctuation and symbols, including brackets, percent signs, and more. You can also say phrases like 'caps on' to turn on capital letters.

4. Click Done under the microphone icon or press the Fn key once when you're finished dictating.

The more you use Dictation, the more it learns how you speak — like your accent and cadence. It may seem finicky at first, but as you use it more, it'll get better and better. Apple has a great starter guide on how to dictate punctuation and formatting, as well.

How to change your Dictation language

Did you know that you can dictate your text in multiple languages? Here's how.

1. Open System Preferences from your Dock or Applications folder.

2. Click Keyboard.

3. Click Dictation.

4. Click the drop-down next to Language.

5. Click Add Language…

6. Click the checkboxes next to languages that you wish to add.

7. Click OK.

To use those languages, you can switch to the default dictation option at any time by going to System Preferences > Keyboard > Dictation Language and selecting your current language from the dropdown menu.

How to enable and use Enhanced Dictation

Enhanced Dictation enables you to dictate without an internet connection, and dictate continuously; this means that your words will convert to text more quickly since they're being processed locally on your device.

1. Open System Preferences from your Dock or Applications folder.

2. Click Keyboard.

3. Click Dictation.

4. Click the checkbox next to Use Enhanced Dictation. Enhanced Dictation will take several minutes to download if you haven't done so already.

Once enabled, you can use Enhanced Dictation the same way you would regular dictation. Press the Fn key twice when your cursor is in a text field. If the microphone shows up, speak what you want to be typed and click Done or press the Fn key once.

How to change the Dictation keyboard shortcut

While the Fn key on your Mac's keyboard is the default trigger for dictation, you can change that in the Dictation section of the keyboard preference pane

1. Open System Preferences from your Dock or Applications folder.

2. Click Keyboard.

3. Click Dictation.

4. Click the drop-down menu next to Shortcut.

5. Click an option in the list or click Customize to create your own (seems like only the arrow keys work).

How to enable/disable Dictation Commands

Dictation Commands allow you to do things with your text just by speaking. For example, you can select a whole paragraph, go back to the beginning, or replace a phrase with another phrase.

You can only use Dictation Commands with Enhanced Dictation enabled.

1. Click the Apple menu button on the top left of your screen.
2. Click System Preferences.

3. Click Accessibility.

4. Click Dictation in the menu on the left. You'll have to scroll down a bit to find it.

5. Click Dictation Commands…

6. Click the checkbox next to each dictation command you'd like to disable. They're all enabled by default.

7. Click Done in the bottom right corner of the window.

Reading through the Dictation Commands list is a great way to learn all the things you can do with text just by speaking to your Mac. You can also click the checkbox next to Enable advanced commands, which will enable system commands.

How to enable the dictation keyword phrase

Want to feel like you're in a sci-fi movie? Enable the dictation keyword phrase and you'll be able to use dictation commands even when you're not dictating. So you can be all 'computer, replace 'boots' with 'cats',' and the phrase will be replaced in your text. It's a bit finicky, but when it works, it's so cool!

You have to have Enhanced Dictation enabled for this to work.

1. Click the Apple menu button on the top left of your screen.
2. Click System Preferences.

3. Click Accessibility.

4. Click Dictation in the menu on the left. You'll have to scroll down a bit to find it.
5. Click the checkbox next to Enable the dictation keyword phrase.

6. Enter a keyword phrase if you want to change it from 'Computer'. (But if you leave it as 'Computer', you sound like the captain of a spaceship!)

Now when your cursor is in a text field, you can just say the keyword phrase and your dictation command and it'll do it.

How to enable a sound when a command is recognized

You have to have Enhanced Dictation enabled for this to work.

1. Click the Apple menu button on the top left of your screen.
2. Click System Preferences.

3. Click Accessibility.

4. Click Dictation in the menu on the left. You'll have to scroll down a bit to find it.

5. Click the checkbox next to Play sound when command is recognized.

How to enable/disable output mute during dictation

If you accidentally open a website with an autoplay video or you're listening to music but want to dictate something quickly, you can mute audio output during dictation so that you don't have to manually fiddle around with volume.

You must have Enhanced Dictation enabled to use this feature.

1. Click the Apple menu button on the top left of your screen.
2. Click System Preferences.

3. Click Accessibility.

4. Click Dictation in the menu on the left. You'll have to scroll down a bit to find it.

5. Click the checkbox next to Mute audio output while dictating.

Dictation accessibility in macOS Catalina

In macOS Catalina, Apple has opted to change things up a bit regarding dictation and accessibility. While there was previously a section for accessibility options for dictation in System Preferences, those capabilities have been folded into the new Voice Control accessibility feature. Voice Control is a greatly expanded set of capabilities that allow you to control every aspect of your Mac, including text entry, with your voice.

Great accessories for your Mac

Apple AirPods 2(From $159 at Apple)

The best Apple accessory has gotten betting with AirPods 2. Now offering a wireless charger case, the popular earbuds feature the new Apple H1 headphone chip that delivers a faster wireless connection to your devices, as well as support for 'Hey Siri.'

Bose Companion 20($250 at Amazon)

These beautiful speakers offer a balanced sound in a stylish package. With no knobs on the front, a small pod attached to the right speaker controls volume, which also holds the ports for your headphones or other audio devices.

Questions?

Dictation questions? Let us know in the comments below!

Updated July 2019: Updated instructions for macOS Mojave and added a section about what's happening with dictation accessibility in macOS Catalina.

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Historically, the command line interface provided a way to manipulate a computer over simple, text-based connections. In the modern era, in spite of the ability to transmit graphical user interfaces over the Internet, the command line remains a powerful tool for performing certain types of tasks.

As described previously in Before You Begin, most users interact with a command-line environment using the Terminal application, though you may also use a remote connection method such as secure shell (SSH). Each Terminal window or SSH connection provides access to the input and output of a shell process. A shell is a special command-line tool that is designed specifically to provide text-based interactive control over other command-line tools.

In addition to running individual tools, most shells provide some means of combining multiple tools into structured programs, called shell scripts (the subject of this book).

Different shells feature slightly different capabilities and scripting syntax. Although you can use any shell of your choice, the examples in this book assume that you are using the standard OS X shell. The standard shell is bash if you are running OS X v10.3 or later and tcsh if you are running an earlier version of the operating system.

The following sections provide some basic information and tips about using the command-line interface more effectively; they are not intended as an exhaustive reference for using the shell environments.

Note: This appendix was originally part of Mac Technology Overview.

Basic Shell Concepts

Before you start working in any shell environment, there are some basic features of shell scripting that you should understand. Some of these features are specific to OS X, but most are common to all platforms that support shell scripting.

Running Your First Command-Line Tool

In general, you run command-line tools that OS X provides by typing the name of the tool. (The syntax for running tools that you’ve added is described later in this appendix.)

For example, if you run the ls command, by default, it lists the files in your home directory. To run this command, type ls and press Return.

Most tools also can take a number of flags (sometimes called switches). For example, you can get a “long” file listing (with additional information about every file) by typing ls -l and pressing Return. The -l flag tells the ls command to change its default behavior.

Similarly, most tools take arguments. For example, to show a long listing of the files on your OS X desktop, type ls -l Desktop and press Return. In that command, the word Desktop is an argument that is the name of the folder that contains the contents of your OS X desktop.

In addition, some tools have flags that take flag-specific arguments in addition to the main arguments to the tool as a whole.

Specifying Files and Directories

Most commands in the shell operate on files and directories, the locations of which are identified by paths. The directory names that make up a path are separated by forward-slash characters. For example, the Terminal program is in the Utilities folder within the Applications folder at the top level of your hard drive. Its path is /Applications/Utilities/Terminal.app.

The shell (along with, for that matter, all other UNIX applications and tools) also has a notion of a current working directory. When you specify a filename or path that does not start with a slash, that path is assumed to be relative to this directory. For example, if you type cat foo, the cat command prints the contents of the file foo in the current directory. You can change the current directory using the cd command.

Finally, the shell supports a number of directory names that have a special meaning.

Table A-1 lists some of the standard shortcuts used to represent specific directories in the system. Because they are based on context, these shortcuts eliminate the need to type full paths in many situations.

File and directory names traditionally include only letters, numbers, hyphens, the underscore character (_), and often a period (.) followed by a file extension that indicates the type of file (.txt, for example). Most other characters, including space characters, should be avoided because they have special meaning to the shell.

Although some OS X file systems permit the use of these other characters, including spaces, you must do one of the following:

• “Escape” the character—put a backslash character () immediately before the character in the path.

• Add single or double quotation marks around the path or the portion that contains the offending characters.

For example, the path name My Disk can be written as 'My Disk', 'My Disk', or My Disk.

Single quotes are safer than double quotes because the shell does not do any interpretation of the contents of a single-quoted string. However, double quotes are less likely to appear in a filename, making them slightly easier to use. When in doubt, use a backslash before the character in question, or two backslashes to represent a literal backslash.

For more detailed information, see Quoting Special Characters in Flow Control, Expansion, and Parsing.

Accessing Files on Additional Volumes

On a typical UNIX system, the storage provided by local disk drives is presented as a single tree of files descending from a single root directory. This differs from the way the Finder presents local disk drives, which is as one or more volumes, with each volume acting as the root of its own directory hierarchy. To satisfy both worlds, OS X includes a hidden directory, Volumes, at the root of the local file system. This directory contains all of the volumes attached to the local computer.

To access the contents of other local (and many network) volumes, you prefix the volume-relative path with /Volumes/ followed by the volume name. For example, to access the Applications directory on a volume named MacOSX, you would use the path /Volumes/MacOSX/Applications.

Note: To access files on the boot volume, you are not required to add volume information, since the root directory of the boot volume is /. Including the volume information still works, though, so if you are interacting with the shell from an application that is volume-aware, you may want to add it, if only to be consistent with the way you access other volumes. You must include the volume information for all volumes other than the boot volume.

Input And Output

Most tools take text input from the user and print text out to the user’s screen. They do so using three standard file descriptors, which are created by the shell and are inherited by the program automatically. These standard file descriptors are listed in Table A-2.

To learn more about working with these descriptors, including redirecting the output of one tool to the input of another, read Shell Input and Output.

Terminating Programs

To terminate the currently running program from the command line, press Control-C. This keyboard shortcut sends an abort (ABRT) signal to the currently running process. In most cases this causes the process to terminate, although some tools may install signal handlers to trap this signal and respond differently. (See Trapping Signals in Advanced Techniques for details.)

In addition, you can terminate most scripts and command-line tools by closing a Terminal window or SSH connection. This sends a hangup (HUP) signal to the shell, which it then passes on to the currently running program. If you want a program to continue running after you log out, you should run it using the nohup command, which catches that signal and does not pass it on to whatever command it invokes.

Frequently Used Commands

Shell scripting involves a mixture of built-in shell commands and standard programs that run in all shells. Although most shells offer the same basic set of commands, there are often variations in the syntax and behavior of those commands. In addition to the shell commands, OS X also provides a set of standard programs that run in all shells.

Table A-3 lists some commands that are commonly used interactively in the shell. Most of the items in this table are not specific to any given shell. For syntax and usage information for each command, see the corresponding man page. For a more in-depth list of commands and their accompanying documentation, see OS X Man Pages.

Environment Variables

Some programs require the use of environment variables for their execution. Environment variables are variables inherited by all programs executed in the shell’s context. The shell itself uses environment variables to store information such as the name of the current user, the name of the host computer, and the paths to any executable programs. You can also create environment variables and use them to control the behavior of your program without modifying the program itself. For example, you might use an environment variable to tell your program to print debug information to the console.

To set the value of an environment variable, you use the appropriate shell command to associate a variable name with a value. For example, to set the environment variable MYFUNCTION to the value MyGetData in the global shell environment you would type the following command in a Terminal window:

When you launch an application from a shell, the application inherits much of its parent shell’s environment, including any exported environment variables. This form of inheritance can be a useful way to configure the application dynamically. For example, your application can check for the presence (or value) of an environment variable and change its behavior accordingly. Different shells support different semantics for exporting environment variables, so see the man page for your preferred shell for further information.

Child processes of a shell inherit a copy of the environment of that shell. Shells do not share their environments with one another. Thus, variables you set in one Terminal window are not set in other Terminal windows. Once you close a Terminal window, any variables you set in that window are gone.

If you want the value of a variable to persist between sessions and in all Terminal windows, you must either add it to a login script or add it to your environment property list. See Before You Begin for details.

Similarly, environment variables set by tools or subshells are lost when those tools or subshells exit.

Running User-Added Commands

As mentioned previously, you can run most tools by typing their name. This is because those tools are located in specific directories that the shell searches when you type the name of a command. The shell uses the PATH environment variable to control where it searches for these tools. It contains a colon-delimited list of paths to search—/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/sbin, for example.

If a tool is in any other directory, you must provide a path for the program to tell it where to find that tool. (For security reasons, when writing scripts, you should always specify a complete, absolute path.)

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For security reasons, the current working directory is not part of the default search path (PATH), and should not be added to it. If it were, then another user on a multi-user system could trick you into running a command by adding a malicious tool with the same name as one you would typically run (such as the ls command) or a common misspelling thereof.

For this reason, if you need to run a tool in the current working directory, you must explicitly specify its path, either as an absolute path (starting from /) or as a relative path starting with a directory name (which can be the . directory). For example, to run the MyCommandLineProgram tool in the current directory, you could type ./MyCommandLineProgram and press Return.

With the aforementioned security caveats in mind, you can add new parts (temporarily) to the value of the PATH environment variable by doing the following:

If you want the additional path components to persist between sessions and in all Terminal windows, you must either add it to a login script or add it to your environment property list. See Before You Begin for details.

Running Applications

To launch an application, you can generally either:

• Use the open command.

• Run the application binary itself.

  Type the pathname of the executable file inside the package.

Note: As a general rule, if you launch a GUI application from a script, you should run that script only within Terminal or another GUI application. You cannot necessarily launch an GUI application when logged in remotely (using SSH, for example). In general, doing so is possible only if you are also logged in using the OS X GUI, and in some versions of OS X, it is disallowed entirely.

Learning About Other Commands

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At the command-line level, most documentation comes in the form of man pages (short for manual). Man pages provide reference information for many shell commands, programs, and POSIX-level concepts. The manual page manpages describes the organization of manual, and the format and syntax of individual man pages.

To access a man page, type the man command followed by the name of the thing you want to look up. For example, to look up information about the bash shell, you would type man bash. The man pages are also included in the OS X Developer Library (OS X Man Pages).

You can also search the manual pages by keyword using the apropos command.

Note: Not all commands and programs have man pages. For a list of available man pages, look in the /usr/share/man directory or see OS X Man Pages in the OS X Developer Library.

Most shells have a command or man page that displays the list of commands that are built into the shell (builtins). Table A-4 lists the available shells in OS X along with the ways you can access the list of builtins for the shell.

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